Author Archives: Marco Barnig

Neuroscience and Neurobiology

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Last update : August 10, 2013

Neuroscience

Neurons “Blue Brain Project”

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system, mainly the brain. In the past neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology. Today it is an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, physics, and psychology.

Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have been aided by the study of neural networks.

Neurobiology is sometimes used as a synonym, although it refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system. Neurobiology is studied at numerous universities : Harvard, Stanford, Yale, UCLA, Duke, Austin, …

Several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists :

A public education booklet about the brain and neuroscience has been published by the IBRO.

In June 2012, EPFL (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) launched the NEUROPOLIS project, a global Neuroscience Hub, with the partnership of the Universities of Lausanne and Geneva. Two entities will be constructed :

  • A research infrastructure in Lausanne, constructed on the grounds of the institutions of higher learning, UNIL-EPFL
  • A research infrastructure in Geneva, near the University Hospital, including a new Institute of Translational Molecular Imaging (UNIGE)

NEUROPOLIS will establish an institute of international stature. Like CERN in the field of physics, NEUROPOLIS unites neuroscientists and biologists from around the world. The initiator of the project is Henry Markram, the Director of the Human Brain Project at EPFL. NEUROPOLIS will also be open to the general public : an interactive space will be dedicated to neuroscience and the conquest of the brain. A video about the project is available at Dailymotion.

Another famous medical research organization, dedicated to accelerating the understanding of how the human brain works, is the Allen Institute for Brain Science. This Seattle-based nonprofit institute was launched in 2003 by Paul Allen, the co-founder, with Bill Gates, of Microsoft Corporation. The Allen Institute for Brain Science provides researchers and educators with a variety of unique online public resources for exploring the nervous system, which are all openly accessible via the Allen Brain Atlas data portal.

Additional informations about neuroscience and neurobiology are available at the following links :

Cognition and Cognitive Science

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Last update : May 3, 2013
Cognition is a group of mental processes that includes attention, memory, language, learning, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making. Cognition is a faculty for the processing of information, applying knowledge, and changing preferences. Cognitive processes, can be natural or artificial, conscious or unconscious.

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary investigation of mind and intelligence, embracing psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, and computational intelligence. Cognitive Science is focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed within nervous systems and machines.

The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in 1973. In 1979, the Cognitive Science Society was founded.

Links to additional informations about cognitive science are provided in the following list :

2045: A New Era for Humanity

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The 2045 Initiative was founded by Dmitry Itskov in February 2011 in partnership with leading Russian scientists. Dmitry Itskov is the founder and President of New Media Stars. He attended the top economics university in Russia and has more than ten years of work experience in media projects.

The main objectives of the 2045 Initiative are:

  • creation of a new vision of human development that meets global challenges humanity faces today
  • realization of the possibility of a radical extension of human life by means of cybernetic technology
  • formation of a new culture associated with these technologies

The 2045 team is working towards creating an international research center where leading scientists will be engaged in research and development in the fields of anthropomorphic robotics, living systems modeling and brain and consciousness modeling with the goal of transferring one’s individual consciousness to an artificial carrier and achieving cybernetic immortality.

The main idea is the 2045 Avatar Project which is planned to be conducted in four steps :

The 2045 Avatar Project

  1. creation of a human-like robot dubbed Avatar A and a state-of-the-art brain-computer interface system to link the mind with it
  2. creation of a life support system for the human brain, which connects to the Avatar A, turning into Avatar B
  3. development of an artificial brain in which to transfer one’s individual consciousness with the goal of achieving cybernetic immortality : Avatar C
  4. development of a hologram-like avatar : Avatar D

A video of the 2045 project is available at Youtube.

An annual congress The Global Future 2045 (GF2045) is organized by the Initiative to give platform for discussing mankind’s evolutionary strategy based on technologies of cybernetic immortality as well as the possible impact of such technologies on global society, politics and economies of the future.

The first annual congress Modeling and Predicting Worldwide Dynamics took place in February 2012 in Moscow. More than 50 scientist, including physicists, biologists, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and philosophers have been trying to outline a strategy for further development of the humankind. Among the speakers were Eric Chaisson, David Christian, Raymond Kurzweil, John Smart, Fred Spier. Videos and transcripts of the presentations and the round tables are available at the GF2045 website.

The second GF2045 International Congress was held in June 2013 in New York City. Among the speakers were George Church, Sir Roger Penrose, Hiroshi Ishiguro, David Hanson, Marvin Minsky, Ben Goertzel, Raymond Kurzweil.

Intelligence

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Last update : August 4, 2013

Intelligence Test

Intelligence Test

Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including, but not limited to, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving. Intelligence is related to humans, animals, plants and machines (artificial intelligence).

A comprehensive definition of intelligence is controversial, what is considered intelligent varies with culture.

Psychometrics are often used to measure Intelligence. An intelligence quotient (IQ) is used to assess intelligence. The abbreviation IQ comes from the German term Intelligenz-Quotient, originally coined by the psychologist William Stern. IQ is a score derived from one of several standardized tests.

When a new IQ test is normed, the standard scoring is calculated so they conform to a normal distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. The intention is that approximately 95% of the population scores an IQ between 70 and 130 (within two SDs of the mean).

The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising at an average rate of three points per decade since 1930, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is disputed whether these changes in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities. Attempted explanations of the IQ rise have included improved nutrition, a trend toward smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and heterosis.

People having an IQ higher than 130 are considered as very intelligent. Organizations supporting people who are within a certain high percentile of IQ test results are called High IQ societies : the oldest, largest and best-known such society is Mensa International (website : www.mensa.org).

Other high IQ societies are :

The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, as a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific modalities, rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability, was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind.

Artificial Intelligence

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Last update : May 13, 2024

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it.The term was coined by John McCarthy in 1955. The field of AI research was founded at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. The attendees, including John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, became the leaders of Artificial Intelligence research for many decades.

Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

AI research began in the mid 1950s after the Dartmouth conference. The field AI was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence, can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. The first generation of AI researchers were convinced that this sort of AI was possible and that it would exist in just a few decades.

In the early 1970s, it became obvious that researchers had grossly underestimated the difficulty of the project. By the 1990s, AI researchers had gained a reputation for making promises they could not keep. The AI research suffered from longstanding differences of opinion how it should be done and from the application of widely differeing tools.

The field of AI regressed into a multitude of relatively well insulated domains like logics, neural learning, expert systems, chatbots, robotics, semantic web, case based reasoning etc., each with their own goals and methodologies. These subfields, which often failed to communicate with each other, are often referred as applied AI, narrow AI or weak AI.

The old original approach to achieving artificial intelligence is called GOFAI. The term was coined by John Haugeland in his 1986 book Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea.

Weak Artificial intelligence

After the AI winter, the mainstream of AI research has turned with success toward domain-dependent and problem-specific solutions. These subfields of weak AI have grown up around particular institutions and individual researchers, some of them are listed hereafter:

Peter Norvig, Google’s head of research, and Eric Horvitz, a distinguished scientist at Microsoft Research, are optimistic about the future of machine intelligence. They spoke recently to an audience at the Computer History Museum in Palo Alto, California, about the promise of AI. Afterward, they talked with Technology Review‘s IT editor, Tom Simonite.

A few AI searchers continue to believe that artificial intelligence could match or exceed human intelligence. The term strong AI, now in wide use, was introduced for this category of AI by the philosopher John Searle of the University of California at Berkeley. Among his notable concepts is the Chinese Room, a thought experiment which is an argument against strong AI.

Strong Artificial Intelligence

Strong AI is the intelligence of a machine that could successfully perform any intellectual task that a human being can. Strong AI is associated with traits such as consciousness, sentience, sapience (wisdom) and self-awareness observed in living beings.

There is a wide agreement among AI researchers that strong artificial intelligence is required to do the following :

  • reason, use strategy, solve puzzles and make judgements under uncertainty
  • represent knowledge, including commonsense knowledge
  • plan
  • learn
  • communicate in natural language
  • integrate all these skills towards common goals

Other important capabilities include the ability to sense (see, …) and the ability to act (move and manipulate objects, …) in the observed world.

Some AI researchers adopted the term of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) to refer to the advanced interdisciplinary research field of strong AI. Other AI researchers prefer the term of Synthetic Intelligence to make a clear distinction with GOFAI.

The following links provide some informations about the history and the concepts of Artificial Intelligence :

A list of organizations and institutions dealing with Artificial Intelligence is shown below :

“Artificial intelligence is no match for human stupidity!”

Evo Devo Universe

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Evo Devo Universe (EDU) is a global community of theoretical and applied physicists, chemists, biologists, cognitive and social scientists, computer scientists, technologists, philosophers, information theorists, complexity scholars and systems theorists who are interested in better characterizing the relationship and difference between evolutionary and developmental processes in the universe and its subsystems. The project originated from John Smart and Clément Vidal in January 2008.

The first international EDU conference was held in Paris in October 2008. The second international EDU conference is planned in 2013 at the East Coast, USA.

EDU is looking for researchers to collaborate on investigating on free energy rate density (FERD) and its larger human implications, as described in a brief research project overview, created by Clément Vidal.

Cosmic Evolution

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Last update : July 17, 2013
Eric Chaisson defined the grand scenario of cosmic evolution as follows :

cosmic evolution = physical evolution + biological evolution + cultural evolution

Eric Chaisson segmented the physical evolution in five epochs :

  • Particulate evolution
  • Galactic evolution
  • Stellar evolution
  • Planetary evolution
  • Chemical evolution
Cosmic Evolution : Time Arrow by Eric Chaisson

From Big Bang to Humankind : Time Arrow by Eric Chaisson

Eric Chaisson uses an time arrow to highlight salient features of cosmic history, from the Big Bang to the present, encompassing 14 Giga Years (Ga). He defined the concept of free energy rate density as the amount of energy that flows through a certain amount of mass during a certain period of time. The concept of power density was not new, but Eric Chaisson has been the first to make a systematic comparison of these values all across nature.

Eric Chaisson’s understanding of the cosmic evolution is related to the Big History.

The following list shows links to websites with further informations about cosmic evolution:

The four laws of thermodynamics and the entropy

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The four laws of thermodynamics define fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy) that characterize thermodynamic systems. The laws describe how these quantities behave under various circumstances, and forbid certain phenomena (such as the perpetuum mobile).

The four laws were developed during the 19th and early 20th century. Many researchers consider that the zeroth and third laws follow directly from the frist and second laws, thus that there are really only two fundamental laws of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamic entropy is a measure of how evenly energy is distributed in a system. The term was coined in 1865 by the German physicist Rudolf Clausius.

In a physical system, entropy provides a measure of the amount of energy that cannot be used to do work.

Free Energy Rate Density and STEM Compression

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A metric to characterize the complexity of physical, biological and cultural systems in the universe has been proposed by Eric Chaisson. It is called Free Energy Rate Density (FERD). The Evo Devo Universe Community is looking for researchers to collaborate on investigating FERD and its larger human implications.

Birds have higher energy rate densities, compared to humans, probably because they operate in 3 dimensions.

An idea that the most complex of the universe’s extant systems at any time  use progressively less space, time, energy and matter to create the next level of complexity in their evolutionary development has been advocated by John Smart. The concept is called STEM compression (formerly MEST compression).

A list of links to websites dealing with FERD and STEM is shown hereafter :

Big History and ChronoZoom

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Last update : July 17, 2013
Big History is a field of historical study that examines history on large scales across long time frames through a multidisciplinary approach, to understand the integrated history of the cosmos, earth, life, and humanity, using the best available empirical evidence and scholarly methods. Big History evolved from interdisciplinary studies in the mid-20th century, some of the first efforts were Cosmic Evolution at the Center for Astrophysics, Harvard University and Universal History in the Soviet Union.

An International Big History Association (IBHA) was founded in 2010. The same year, Walter Alvarez and Roland Saekow from the department of Earth and Planetary Science at the University of California, Berkeley, developed ChronoZoom, an online program that visualizes time on the broadest possible scale from the Big Bang to the present day. A beta version of ChromoZoom 2 in HTML5 was released in March 2012 by Outercurve Foundation, a non-profit organization that supports open-source software.

In 2011, Bill Gates and David Christian started The Big History Project to enable the global teaching of big history. Seven schools have been selected for the initial classroom pilot phase of the project. IBHA is one of the partners of the project. Educators can register to participate in the beta program of the Big History Project. At the TED talks in March 2011, David Christian narrated a complete history of the universe, from the Big Bang to the Internet, in a riveting 18 minutes.

Macquaire University has launched a Big History Institute as part of the Big History Project. Big History is teached since 1994 at the University of Amsterdam by Fred Spier.

A list of links to great websites illustrating different epochs (particulate, galactic, stellar, planetary, chemical, biological, culturel) of the Big History is shown hereafter :